China, by contrast, had anticipated such changes and leapfrogged certain stages of development, Majman said, citing payment systems as an example. He described the improvement in the quality of Chinese exports as a "revolution", increasingly recognized by European consumers and businesses.

　　Perceptions of German and Japanese products have also changed as their quality improved, he noted. Judgments about Chinese manufacturing needed to catch up with what its companies are producing.

　　A trainer operates a robot using virtual reality equipment at the training base of a robotics technology company in Suzhou on Oct 21. CHEN YUHE/XINHUA

　　Benefits of competition

　　As Chinese companies become more competitive, other countries face decisions about how to respond. Some experts said investing in innovation, learning from successful technologies and keeping trade open could help those countries strengthen their industries and gain from China's progress.

　　Former British lawmaker Mark Logan said a "shock" could be understood as "something that pushes you to try and be more innovative and try and do more".

　　Countries should study what others had achieved and use those lessons to improve their own economies, he told China Daily. Britain's own industrial history, he said, should encourage confidence in competition and a willingness to learn.

　　"China being successful, I believe, means that the whole world can be successful," he said.

　　John Ross, a British economist and former director of economic and business policy for the mayor of London, said European countries should examine their own economic decisions rather than attribute their difficulties to China.